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  1. An Operating System (OS) structure defines how its components are organized and interact within the kernel. This architecture impacts performance, maintainability, and flexibility. Below is a conceptual top-down diagram explanation of common OS structures.

    1. Simple Structure

    • No clear separation between modules.

    • Direct hardware access by applications.

    • Example: MS-DOS.

    • Pros: Easy to develop, minimal overhead.

    • Cons: Unstable — a single program crash can halt the system.

    2. Layered Structure

    • Organized into layers: Hardware → CPU Scheduling → Memory Management → Process Management → I/O Buffer → User Programs.

    • Each layer uses services of the one below it.

    • Pros: Easy debugging, modularity.

    • Cons: Slower due to multiple layer traversals.

    • Example: UNIX.

    3. Modular Structure

    • Core kernel with essential services; extra features as loadable modules at boot/runtime.

    • Modules can interact freely.

    • Pros: Flexible, easier updates.

    • Cons: Slightly more complex than monolithic.

    • Example: Solaris.

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  9. The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface.

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